RESUME
“ESSAY
WRITING for ENGLISH TEST”
The
Purpose
In order to be able to write good
essaysit is first of all essentialt o make sure that
you understand
the purpose of the task. It may seem obvious: the purpose is to
test your
abiliry to write essaysfo r university or college in English.
This
resume therefore deals with these three stages:
I. Understanding the question
II. Selecting and Presenting Ideas
Appropriately
III. Appropriate Language Use
STAGE
1
“The Questions”
1.Understanding
the Question
The
first step in essay writing is to analyse the essay task which tells you what
the
topic is, and
also gives an indication of what kind of things you are expected to
say about the topic.
Essay topics have 3 components:
1) the instruction words, telling you
what to do
2) the key words indicating the topic
3) the words restricting the topic,
indicating what aspect of the topic you
are asked to focus on.
We will consider
these one by one.
The
Instructions
Look
at these tasks:
a)
Describe the role of the fnternet in
modern society.
b)
The environment is the most important issue in
the world today. Discuss!
The instruction are:
In
a) it is describe and in b) it is discuss. These two words indicate the two
most
common types of
essay that one can write.
2.
Analysing the Question
Understanding the question means more
than understanding the instructions or
the words of the
question. It means recognising the focus of the question, and
knowing what
approach you should take to the topic.
This
is, in some ways, the most important aspect of writing the essaya, nd requires
the most
thought. You should therefore be prepared to spend at least 3 minutes
thinking about
what approach to take to the question.
The handbook,
you remember, explains that:
Candidates are assessed on their ability
to:
. present the solution to a problem
. present and justifr an opinion
. compare and contrast evidence,
opinions and implications
- evaluate and challenge ideas, evidence
or an argument.
You
will therefore need to decide which of these approaches is the one required
for any
particular question. You will also need to know when and how much to
use definitions
and examples.
In this section we will deal with the following
features of a discussion or
argument essay:
The Focus
The Context
Definitions
Example
a. Finding the focus
It
is very important to look at the actual question words very closely. Students
sometimes jump
to conclusions about what they should write by just looking at
the topic, and
not at the focus of the topic.
b. Understanding the Context
The
question is always based on an issue, or a problem.which you are asked to
analyse and present an opinion on.
You
therefore need to think, before you plan your own answe! why the question
is considered to
be an issue or a problem by the examiners.
c. Defining the terms
Some
books and teachers tell you that you must define the terms that you use so
that the readerw
ill understand you. This is sometimest rue, but it is necessaryt o
be sensible
about it.
STAGE
2
“Selecting and Presenting ldeas”
3.
Finding
ldeas
In an essay of 250
words, to be written in 40 minutes, you cannot be too ambitious
about what you write. Some students make
the mistake of trying to express very
deep ideas and they never get past
writing an introducdon to what would be a
long essayif there was time. On the
other hand, if you do not have any specific
ideas at all you may find yourself
saying only one thing over and over again in
several different ways.
Three is a good number
(although it can be less or more), since that gives you a Paragraph essay w
hich is about the right length:
Paragraph 1. Introduction
2.Supporting point
3. Supporting point
4. Supporting point
5. Conclusion
The
easiest way to find and organise ideas is to brainstorm
a. Broinstorming
In order to organisey
our ideasf or a topic, it is first of all necessary to pin them down. Most
students find that the best way to deal with this is to brainstorm their ideas
first.
b.
Finding More ldeas
If you are having
difficulties thinking up ideas at the right level of generalisation (see p.26
for a discussion about this), then a good technique is to think of very specific,
concrete examples, and then try to find a higher level of abstraction that the
examples belong to.
c. Using examples
In all essaysy ou must
give specific points to support your argument. Sometimes a topic will be quite
abstract and it is important to realise that you need to use examples to
support your point of view - and to make sure that you have enough to say!
d. The “what if not” situation
It can happen that you
are faced with a question that you have never thought about at all, and where
it is difficult to think of concrete example.
e. Looking at the other side
Remember that if you
are presenting an argument it is not necessaryto present only the points that
support your side of the argument. In fact, if you want to be convincing and to
give a balanced statement, you need to look at what the supporters of the other
side are likely to say, and to give a response to that.
4.
Selecting
ideas
There are a number of
concepts that you must be clear about because they are involved in every kind
of writing that you will do. You must be aware of the fact that you will nearly
always be dealing with problems and solutions, that above all you are
evaluating ideas and solutions as you write, and that you must select ideas
that are relevant, that are at the right level ofgeneralisation, and that are ranked
logically for the topic that you are writing about.
a. Solutions to problems
Candidates are
assessedo n their ability to present the solution to a problem.In fact, every
topic is really a problem. If it were not a problem, it would not be worth
talking about.
b.
Evaluotion
whatever the task,
whether it is problem-solving, looking at effects or consequencesd, efending an
opinion, comparing and contrasting evidence or ideas, you will need to evaluate.
c.
Classification
of ideas
After brainstorming,
and having looked at the topic again, your next step is to organise the ideas
that you have jotted down. This involves classi$'ing your ideas into logical
categories,s o that you can produce well-organised paragraphs. Generally, more
than one system of classification is possible but there is usually one very
obvious pattern.
d. types of classification
As we said before
(4.2),because the essayt opic requiresy ou to expressa an opinion, you will
need to evaluate something. In order to do that you will frequently find
yourself with a classification as above, into positive and negative features.
Another way of thinking
about such topics is that you have to make a comparison.You are comparing the
positive features with the negative ones.
e. Selecting Relevant ideas
After brainstorming and
while classifring your ideas,i t is necessaryto eliminate any points that are
nor relevant. At this point it is useful to look at the question again, to make
sure that the ideas that you choose are not only on the topic, but also
relevant to the question.
f. Level of Generolisation
One basis on which to
select relevant ideas is to ensure that you choose points at the right level of
generalisation. In other words, it is necessaryto eliminate small,
trivial points or
examples, and at the same time not to try to tackle concepts that are too broad
for such a short essay.
g.
Overgeneralisatioons
and Exaggeration
Generalisationsa re
necessary\.f le cannot make any sensiblec onclusions about
anything
without generalising from specific examples. Especially in your
introduction,
topic sentencesa nd conclusion (SeeS tage3 ) you will need to
generalise.
However, there is a danger of over-generalisation. Over-generalisations
(or
sueepingg erueralisationass they are also called) do not help your argument,
because
they give the impression that you are not very thoughtful
5.
Organising ldeas
a. Ranking ideas
Once you have selected
your points, you need to decide in what order to present them. This is
important to show that you are in control of your material, and that you
understand the relative importance of each of the points you are making. In
this secrion we will deal with different patterns of organisation, but first of
all you need to be aware of the need to rank ideas according to one of
thefoliowing methods:
a) from the most important to the least important
b) from the most common to the least
common
c) from the most general to the least
general
d) from the earlier to the later
(chronological order)'
b. Consequences
The most obvious way of
discussing a problem, in any situation, not just essays, is to look at the
causes of (or reasons for) the existence of the problem, and then to consider
what consequences or results (or effects) there might be if certain solutions
are tried.
c. Comparisons
In fact, if you think
about it you will see that evaluation is a kind of comparison, or that
comparison and contrast is a kind of evaluation.'When you evaluate something,
as we said before, you are comparing the situation as it is with an ideal
situation. At the same time, when you are comparing or contrasting rwo things
you are evaluating them against some other set of criteria.
d. Alternatives
Sometimes you have to
think of alternatives to an existing situation.
e. Speculation
In some casesy ou may
be askedt o think about an alternative that does not exist, i.e. to speculate
about what might be.
STAGE
3
“Writting”
6.
Using the Right
grammar vocabulary and style
Now that you have
selected and organised your content you can focus on the
actual
writing. This involves using the right grammar and vocabulary for each of
the
sections of the essay -that is, the introduction, body and conclusion --+s
well
as making sure that the overall style is appropriate
a. Grammar
Grammar is the
infrastructure of your writing, and if
that
is weak, then a clever superstructure of ideas will simply make the whole
essay
collapse.
The most important
preparation you can make for your test essay,therefore,is
to
ensure that you have a good grasp of the essentials:
the tenses
the use of the passive
correct use of parts of speech
correct clause structure (with subjects
and finite verbs)
A sentence like this:
#The
develop of cheap alterernative energy
sources will probably be surcessed futurre
is
much worse than:
# Development of cheap alternative
energy sources will probably succeed for
the future. (The correct sentence would of course be: The development of
a cheap alternative Energy source will probably succeed in future.)
b.
Vocabulary
While grammar is one leg, vocabulary is
the second leg for your writing to stand on. But note
that simple, correct English is better than experimenting with
sophisticated
vocabulary and getting it wrong! You may try out unfamiliar
vocabulary if
you have a helpful teacher, but not during a testlThere are certain
words and
phrases that you can make a special point of learning carefully because
they are likely
to be used in most, if not all essaysM. ake sure that you have enough
vocabularv for
each of the common catesories:
Evaluation (e.g. benefit,
unsatisfactory)
Consequence, cause, reason (e.g.
outcome, produce, explanation)
modifiers (e.g. significant, majority)
connectors (under these circumstances,
moreover)
grouping nouns (aspect, factor, feature)
The best way to learn these is to look
for examples in your reading and then copy
them into your
own personal vocabulary book under the appropriate headings.
Be careful to
copy whole phrases, not just single words, so that you learn the
correct use of
the expressions.
The correct use
of a word involves knowing:
the exact meaning
the words that go with it
the grammatical features
For example:
cause and reason do not
mean the same reason is followed by for whTle cause is followed by of you giue
a reason, and you generally sltoua cause. due to is apreposition, and is
followed by a noun or gerund, not a noun clause.
In other words,
vocabulary and grammar go together. It is not enough to understand the meaning
of a word, approximately, when you are writing. It is essential to learn the
accurate usage as well.
7.
The
Sections of the Essay
a. The introduction
The pulpose of the introduction is to
let the reader know
a) the topic
b) the aspect of the topic being dealt
with
c) the stand (attitude) taken by the
writer to the topic.
In other words, the introduction
actually contains the conclusion!
Note:
In the above example the writer's conclusion is presented in the third
sentence.A statement, in this context,
is not the same as a sentence.T hat is to
say, the writer's opinion is presented
as the second statement, but not necessarily
the second sentence.
WARNING:
You must avoid repeating the exact words of the topic. If
you repeat the words, you can gain no
marks, since they are not your
words. The examinerw ill simply ignore
them. If you paraphrase,/ ou :rre
displaying your language skills.
Look again at the examples given above,
and see how the first sentence in
each case is a paraphrase of the topic
as it is given.
·
Grammar and Vocabulary
in the Introduction
The introduction will
normally be in the present tense (e.g. people compkin), or the present
continuous (people are gradually becoming aware), or in the present
perfect tense (people haue pointed out),
After your introductory
statement you need to connect the second statement (i.e. second or third etc.
sentence) either by showing contrast, or by adding emphasis:
Contrast Connectors: but, however
nevertheeless, by / in contrast, on the
other hand, in spite of this, while,
whereas, although.
NOTE:
IT
IS VERY IMPORTANT TO USE THESE CORRECTLY.
b. The Body
The body will rypically consist of about
three paragraphs, presenting points to
support
your argument. You will have worked out your ideas in the planning
stage,
when organising your brainstormed ideas. Now it is simply a matter of
presenting
one main point in each paragraph.
·
Vocabulary in the Body
Connectors
will occur throughout the body of your essayT. he most common
ones are those
that are used for listing, and for addition, for consequences and for
emphasis. The
basic listing connectors are:
firstly; secondly; the thirdfeature
etc.; finally; in conclusion.
These are the
most boring ones. Rather better are the ones that show addition:
both..,and.; aho; not only....but
abo....; furthennore; rnoreoaer; in add.ition.
Note:
Do not overuse these connectors. It is very boring to read one of these at
the beginning of eachs entence! Note
also that it is better to put alsoi n the second
position in the sentencen, ot at the
beginning.
C.
The Conclusion
The
conclusion need not be long. In fact, it can be as short as one sentence. A
good conclusion
will not be merely a repetition of the main topic statement of the
essayo, r of
your proposition statement in the introduction, since that is rather
boring to read
and doesn ot show your English skills. Nevertheless,it should contain
some kind of a
summary of the main argument or proposition of the essayI.t is
also a good idea
to include a comment on the implications of your conclusion.
·
Grammar and
vocabulary in the Conclusion
Make sure that
you know how to use various terms expressingi mplications
correctly. These
include:
otheruise; in
this case; under these circumstances
followed by the
future tense"
You will also
need the language of speculation (see below).
For predictions
you will need the future tense, of course, and it is important to
use modifiers in
this case, such as it is lihely that, in allprobability. (See 8.1
below).
There are, of
course, connectors that are typically used for conclusions. The first
one on the list
is the most unimaginative, and it is better to think of a more
interesting one
if you can.
In conclusion,
finally, therefore, consequently, clearly, it is clear on the
uiltole, in
otlter utords, generally speahing
Remember that
you can combine thnefore with other connectors: e.g. It is clear
therefore,t ha
t..; Generall y spe aki ng therefore.
Note: Beware of
the common error of using mare for emphasis. More is z
comParatlve
term.
8.
Style
There are two types of
problems related to sryle: one is the effect of personal
writing
habits, the second is the result of cultural differences between your
mother
tongue or your educational background on the one hand, and English
for
academic purposes on the other.
a. Modifiers
One of the most
important aspects of language use is the appropriate use of
modifiers.
This is becausei t is in this way that you show your understanding of
the
value of the points you are making - in other words, you are showing your
own
reai understanding of the issues.
b. Overgenerolisation
As we saw in secrion
4.7, overgeneralisationis very colrunon. To modify overgeneralised statements,i
t is generallyn ecessaryto reduce the scope of the statement,by limiting the
quantity or frequency or area involved. Here are iust a few common modifiers
for this:
Few
many rnost
sometimes often
frequently
generally common widespread
c. Overemphosis
Here the problem is not
to exaggerateth e intensity of a statement.T he writer's
attitude
should show a suitable degree of certainty.
Degrees
of intensity are expressedb y terms such as:
Rather quite significant
considerable very
dramatic
Degrees
of certainty can be shown by expressionss uch as:
maybe perhaps possible
definitely undoubtedly
generally speaking
it is clear that
and
all the modal verbs:
may might can
could should would
must ought to
You can also use
expressionsth at distancey ourself from the statement, such as:
some people belive it is generally agreed
according to most scientists it is said that
And in
conclusionsit is useful to modifi your statementsw ith tltesee xpressions:
Therefore it seems that... it can be conclud.ed that
This indicates that
Certain verbs,
for example, can also show varying degrees of strength or certainty:
people are / tend to be this suggests / indicates / proues
x causes ! / x is a contributing factor
to y
d. understatement and Confusion
while
overstatement and exaggeration are more common, some students go the
other way, and
understate their case, or produce mixed and confused signals.
This usually
occurs when students mix some of the modifiers inappropriately.
IT
IS IMPORTANT TO BE VERY ACCURATE IN USING MODIFIERS.
Otherwise you can sound confused
and unintelligent.
e. Woffle
Lack
of ideas is likely to result in a badly written essayt.V hat commonly
happens is that
the writer either needs to fill up the paper with empty,
meaningless
expressions (often referred to as waffle), or there is a good deal of
repetition of
the same idea, or both
f.
Formulaic and Thoughtless
writing
Many
students appear to learn a basic structure and a few basice xpressionsa nd
then attempt to
apply theset o every essayn, o matter what the topic or the
meaning. This
can produce some strange results. Look at the following examples
of mindless
writing:
Noutadays sports are likely to be common
throughout the world.
Education has become an imltortant thing
in the last feut decades.
A student who writes like this is not
showing much intelligence!
There are also
connectors which are used without thought, or overused. The
series:
Firstly....
Secondly.... Thirdb.... Finally.... In conclusion
at the beginning
of consecutive paragraphs reflects alazy mind, writing to a
formula.
g.
Immature writing
Lack
of vocabulary and limited knowledge of grammar are other causes of bad
writing style.
Many
students have exceilent ideas but do not have sufficient vocabulary in
English to
expresst hem. In such casess, ome students simply use vocabulary
incorrectly, and
become incomprehensible, but more commonly students in this
situation are
likely to write in a much simpler style than is suitable for English
for academic purposes.
It is better to write simple, correct English than to try to
write
sophisticated English and do it badly, but of course a universiry or college
entry test essay
should not sound as if it was written by someone in primary
school! The
sryle you should aim for should be at least that of a good year 9 or
year 10 student
writing in their mother tongue.
h. Cultural Differences Style
One
of the major problems that some students face is that their previous experience
in writing has
been in a sryle which is not similar to that expected in their test
essavsT. his may
be because
a) the type of writing they have done
before is different, or
b) the sryle of writing valued by the
mother tongue culture differs from
the sryle expected in English.
i. Different Types of Writing
An
essay is not like a letter, or a debateo r political speech,o r a text-book.
You
need to be aware
of the differences in sryle that each requires"
9.
Proof-reading
There
is usually not much time left during a test to go over your essay and
correct any
mistakes. In any case, you are probably under too much tension to
see mosr of
them. However, there are two types of error that it is relatively easy
to check for and
both involve the final letter S. This is frequently omitted. If you
have time, skim
through your essay and check whether
a) your plural
noruls end in 's'
b) all verbs in
the third person singular, prresent tense' also end in 's'.
10. Appearance
Theoretically,
your handwriting and the layout and generaia ppearanceo f your
essay should not
influence the examiner. Perhaps they dont. But in practice an
essay which is
neatly written and presented does make a better impression. Some
small points to
remember:
a) Leave a good margin. Then you have
space for corrections if you want
to make them.
b) Start each new paragraph on a new
line and indent it.
c) If you want to cross out something,
do it with one neat line, not a hard
scribble. Do not use brackets to enclose
crossed out words"
d) If you do not use Roman script in
your mother tongue and have
difficulry with it -fractise. If you are
living in an English-speaking
country, the childrens section in your
local library may have some
books used to teach children to write,
which could help you.
Finally,
now that you have studied and understood everything in this book, there
is no need to
get nervous about the test!
GOOD
LUCK!
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